• observations, 3, 8, 868

• obsidian, 695

• occluded fronts, 768

• oceanic crust, 661, 663, 678

• oceans, 725–731

  • changes with depth, 726

  • currents, 726–728, 783

  • deep-sea explorations of, 730–731

  • floor of, 726

  • sea level rise, 785

  • wave erosion and

  • deposition, 728–729

• octane, 47, 264

• odometer, 335

• Oersted, Hans, 635

• Ohm's law, 607

• Oldenburg, Claes, 108

• Olympus Mons, 811

• Oort Cloud, 819, 820

• opaque, 546, 547

• open clusters of stars, 851

• Opportunity space probe, 798, 811

• optics, 568–597

  • eye, 588–592

  • fiber, 578, 586–587

  • index of refraction, 574–575

  • law of reflection, 570–571

  • lenses, 574–578

  • mirrors, 570–573, 593

  • optical instruments, 580–587

  • total internal reflection, 578

• orbit of the Earth, 782

• orbitals, atomic, 117

• organic acids and bases, 273–274, 279

• organic compounds, 262

• Origin of Species, On the (Darwin), 680

• Orion, 840

• outer ear, 517

• output arm, of lever, 428

• output distance, 420

• output force, 420

• outwash plain, 722

• oxbow lake, 715, 716

• oxidation, 204–205

• oxidation-reduction reaction, 204

• oxyacetylene torch, 178, 266

• oxygen, 39, 40, 143, 146, 147

  • atmospheric, 747, 750

  • isotope ratios of, 781

  • reaction with calcium, 204

  • reaction with hemoglobin, 218

  • reaction with hydrazine, 194

  • reaction with magnesium, 101

  • reaction with sulfur

  • dioxide, 217

  • reaction with titanium, 158

  • reactivity, 55, 143

• oxygen family (Group 6A), 143

• ozone, 143

• ozone layer, 750

  • halocarbons and, 272

• pahoehoe (lava), 692

• paintings, identifying forged, 554–557

• paint pigments, 172, 555

• Paleozoic Era, 735

• Pangaea, 677, 735

• parachute, 371

• paraffin, 54

• parallax, 839–840, 860–861

• parallel circuit, 610

• particle accelerators, 305

• particles

  • alpha, 104–105, 293, 294, 296

  • beta, 294, 296, 297

  • collisions between, 76, 208

  • gas pressure and number of, 77

  • kinetic theory and, 72–74, 479

  • subatomic, 103, 108–110, 204

• Pascal, Blaise, 391

• pascal (Pa), 75, 391

• Pascal's principle, 395

• Pascal vase, 392

• patina, 57

• pearl, 141

• peer review, 25

• pendulum, energy conversion in, 456

• pentane, 264

• penumbra, 804

• Penzias, Arno, 858

• percent by mass, 238

• percent by volume, 238

• periodic motion, 504

• periodic table, 124–127, 128–149

  • atomic number and, 131

  • Mendeleev's, 127–129

  • modern, 130–138

  • representative groups, 139–145

• period, in periodic table, 131

  • variation across, 138

• period, of waves, 504

• periodic law, 131

• permeable rock, 707

• Permian period, 735

• personal computers, 614–617

• perspiration, 249

• pesticide, arsenic, 148

• petroleum (crude oil), 267–268, 462

  • drilling platform, 260–261

• PET scanner, 306–307

• pH, 247

  • of blood, 251

  • of rain, 269

• phase changes, 84–91

  • characteristics of, 84–86

  • condensation, 90, 217, 705

  • deposition, 91

  • energy and, 86–87

  • freezing, 86, 87, 88

  • melting, 86, 88

  • sublimation, 91

  • temperature and, 85–86, 92–93

  • vaporization, 85, 88–90

• phases, of the moon, 802–803

• phosphate group, 279

• phosphors, 559

• phosphorus, 138, 143, 147, 182, 621

• photoelectric effect, 537

• photography, 582–583

• photons, 537, 538

• photosphere, 835

• photosynthesis, 165, 282, 283, 747

• photovoltaic cells, 464, 485

• physical changes, 51, 58

• physical equilibrium, 217

• physical properties of matter, 45–51

  • examples of, 45–47

  • using to choose materials, 48–49

  • using to identify materials, 48, 60–61

  • using to separate mixtures, 50

• physical science, 4, 5–6

• physics, 4

• piano, 520

• picometers (pm), 160

• pigments, 553, 554–555

• pinhole camera, 582

• pipe, volcanic, 691

• pistons, 487

• pitch, 515, 521

• pixels, 550

• plane, inclined, 427, 430

• plane (flat) mirrors, 570, 571

• planetary nebula, 846, 847

• planetesimals, 823

• planets, 790. See also solar system.

  • composition and size of, 824

  • orbits of, 796

• plasma, 70, 315

  • blood, 250

• plate tectonics, 676–683

  • climate change and, 782

  • continental drift and, 677

  • mountain building and, 683

  • plate boundaries, 681–682, 697

  • sea-floor spreading and, 678–679

  • theory of, 679–680

• Pleiades, 851

• plucking, 720

• plugs, three-prong, 613

• “Plum pudding” model of atom, 103, 114

• Pluto, 796, 797, 815, 818, 819

• polar air mass, 766

• polar covalent bonds, 168

• Polaris (North Star), 794

• polarity, solubility and, 237

• polarization of light, 548–549

• polar molecules, 184–185, 237

• polar zones, 753

• poles, magnetic, 630

• pole vault, energy conversion in, 457

• pollen, climate change and, 781

• pollution, 462

  • air, 268, 270–271

  • noise, 513

• polonium, 143, 295

• polyatomic ions, 172, 173

• polyethylene, 276

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